There is a fake e-mail going around that indicates the recipient has a NY traffic ticket in the town court in "Chatam".
The message is fake and the attachment contains a virus. So don't open it!
A couple of obvious indicators:
1. The town name is Chatham, not Chatam. There is a real Chatham Town Court. They had nothing to do with it so please don't bother them.
2. In NY at least, the police
Civil Law ? The Common Law Legal System
Civil law is the most dominant legal tradition today in most parts of the world. It is that branch of law which deals with individuals, and/or organizations in which compensation is rewarded to the victim. E.g. in a car accident, victim can claim damages against the driver for the loss or injury sustained in the accident. Going back to the history of civil law, common law follows an adversarial model while civil law is more inquisitorial. Civil law is code-based. It provides a forum or predefined set of rules for deciding disputes involving torts, probate of wills, property, administrative law, commercial law and private matters including government departments. The civil judge does not interpret the law but simply follow predetermined legal rules.
The objectives are different in civil law. There is an attempt to right a wrong, honor an agreement or settle a dispute. The victim gets compensation from the person who does the wrong. Every common law country has its own set of legal system that depicts on the rich history of civil law.
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Understanding civil law, one needs to know the history of its origin. As they say, “All roads lead to Rome”, civil law has also originated from the legal institutions of Rome. Its name derives from jus civile, the civil law of the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. The jurists were people from upper classes of the Roman society who offered their legal knowledge as a public service. They advised parties to litigation, lay judiciary who presided over the trials and judged the facts of the case.
There were two types of civil judges: the magistrate and the judge for the trial. The jurists in Rome were nonprofessional and were not the government officers, hence they did not charged for their services. Thus, Roman law had an important influence on history of the world.
Civil law is usually referred to both the common law and law of equity which have historically operated to different doctrines.
Despite of the universal recognition of the distinction between the private law and public law in the civil law world, there is still no agreement among the civil law attorneys on its theoretical basis and no uniformity as to the scope of private and public law. Private law is that area of the law in which the sole function of government was the recognition and enforcement of private rights. Contrarily, public law is the effectuation of public interest by state action. Private law includes civil and commercial codes, while public includes constitutional law, administrative law and criminal law.
In a civil lawsuit, the plaintiff is responsible for the cost of litigation. Most civil law attorneys handle victim cases on a contingency basis which means the attorney fees is deducted from the final award.
Watch as Darren Pollard (Baby Blue Films) is confronted by two police officers claiming it is an offense to film an officer. They proceed straight into Civil Jurisdiction - obviously they have jumped the gun somewhat as no statute was cited nor existed.. not that any joinder had been created with a fictional corporate government employee MR DARREN POLLARD or variant thereof in the first place. Please time stamp your comments / total views to ensure we don't get censored or have the stats altered.
Related Civil Law Articles
Civil law is the most dominant legal tradition today in most parts of the world. It is that branch of law which deals with individuals, and/or organizations in which compensation is rewarded to the victim. E.g. in a car accident, victim can claim damages against the driver for the loss or injury sustained in the accident. Going back to the history of civil law, common law follows an adversarial model while civil law is more inquisitorial. Civil law is code-based. It provides a forum or predefined set of rules for deciding disputes involving torts, probate of wills, property, administrative law, commercial law and private matters including government departments. The civil judge does not interpret the law but simply follow predetermined legal rules.
The objectives are different in civil law. There is an attempt to right a wrong, honor an agreement or settle a dispute. The victim gets compensation from the person who does the wrong. Every common law country has its own set of legal system that depicts on the rich history of civil law.
]]>
Understanding civil law, one needs to know the history of its origin. As they say, “All roads lead to Rome”, civil law has also originated from the legal institutions of Rome. Its name derives from jus civile, the civil law of the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. The jurists were people from upper classes of the Roman society who offered their legal knowledge as a public service. They advised parties to litigation, lay judiciary who presided over the trials and judged the facts of the case.
There were two types of civil judges: the magistrate and the judge for the trial. The jurists in Rome were nonprofessional and were not the government officers, hence they did not charged for their services. Thus, Roman law had an important influence on history of the world.
Civil law is usually referred to both the common law and law of equity which have historically operated to different doctrines.
Despite of the universal recognition of the distinction between the private law and public law in the civil law world, there is still no agreement among the civil law attorneys on its theoretical basis and no uniformity as to the scope of private and public law. Private law is that area of the law in which the sole function of government was the recognition and enforcement of private rights. Contrarily, public law is the effectuation of public interest by state action. Private law includes civil and commercial codes, while public includes constitutional law, administrative law and criminal law.
In a civil lawsuit, the plaintiff is responsible for the cost of litigation. Most civil law attorneys handle victim cases on a contingency basis which means the attorney fees is deducted from the final award.
Catanese & Wells california law firm has several practice groups like Equine Law,horse law,litigation lawyer and business lawyer.Looking for litigation attorney, litigation lawyer, business litigation attorney.
Watch as Darren Pollard (Baby Blue Films) is confronted by two police officers claiming it is an offense to film an officer. They proceed straight into Civil Jurisdiction - obviously they have jumped the gun somewhat as no statute was cited nor existed.. not that any joinder had been created with a fictional corporate government employee MR DARREN POLLARD or variant thereof in the first place. Please time stamp your comments / total views to ensure we don't get censored or have the stats altered.
Related Civil Law Articles
International Law And Municipal Law: The Interface
It is the nature of man to live in communities. He lives in this fashion in every part of the world today, and the evidence of history and pre-history shows how long he has been doing so. But then it must be noted that where people live together conflict is bound to arise due to various conflicting interests among the people. Also, bearing in mind that everybody tries to work hard, obtains basic needs and all other things which help to make life happy and comfortable which are incidentally in short supply, since the supply is always in short in proportion to the demand, competition for them sets in. It is a race in which we all engage, and in every race or game there must be rules and regulations. Else, we are moving towards the ‘state of nature' as enunciated by Hobbes. Therefore, the existence of rules and regulations (law) becomes a sine qua non to the peaceful co-existence of people and nations all over the world.
This chapter therefore, attempts a critical examination of International and Municipal laws. The chapter is divided into three parts. Part one which is the introduction provides theoretical background for the work. In it, clarifications of some concepts that are germane to the study are done. It also looks briefly at purposes and characteristics of law. Part two compares vividly international law and municipal law looking at the debate on the relationship between the two using the contending theories. Part three, which is the concluding aspect, presents a complementary nature of international law and municipal law, thereby viewing both laws as real, irrespective of their peculiarities.
Since conceptual clarification is a form of intellectual ritual that gives clarity and validity to any discussion, it is therefore necessary to explain concepts that are germane to this study for the purpose of deeper understanding.
There have been various definitions of law by different scholars across the global intellectual communities. These definitions exist, ranging from the philosophical to the practical, Plato called law social control; William Blackstone (1977) sees law as rule, specifying what was right and what was wrong. For the purpose of this study, law is viewed as a body of rules that establish a certain level of social conduct, or duties that members of the society honour (Davidson, 1998:3).
Law simply means an arrangement that coordinates and confines people's behaviours to conform to an agreed general ways of human conduct in a given society, with a threat of sanctions against defiant behaviours. Inferred from the above definitions is the need to obey the law. This is because disobedience may attract sanctions that may result in imprisonment, fine or death, depending on the nature of offence. Law may also be defined as a body of rules or regulations governing the conduct of human beings in their social regulations.
Municipal law is the internal law of the state, binding on the citizens of the state. It is defined as the domestic law of a state regulating the conduct of individuals and legal entities within it (Aguda, 1999). It is national or internal law of a state. Shaw sees municipal law as law that governs the domestic aspects of government and deals with issues between individuals and the administrative apparatus (Shaw, 1997:105).
It is an indisputable fact that international law is a victim of definitional pluralism; this is because many scholarly definitions have been given to it by various scholars of repute from different perspectives. Some of these definitions will be explored for the purpose of this study.
Khan et al (1968) defines it as a ‘body of rules, laws, and norms, which serves to limit the sovereignty of state in the international society. Oppenheim (1995) sees it as the ‘body of customary and treaty rules which are considered legally binding by states, in their intercourse with each other.' Jessup (1968) presents it as the body of laws, which is applicable to states in their relations and to individuals in their relations to other states. In the same vein, Kolawole (1997, 278) defines international law or what he calls the ‘law of nations' as the body of rules and principles of action which are binding upon civilised states in their relations with one another. International law is the law at the international level made by the collective will of states and to lesser degree organisation and individuals (Shaw, 1997, 105). In essence, international law is a body of generally accepted principles and rules regulating or controlling the conduct of states, individuals and international organisations for the purpose of peaceful coexistence in the international plane.
The scope of international law can be categorised into six broad items, namely: one, the law of peace, which seeks the peaceful settlement of international disputes. Two, the law of war, since conflict is an inevitable outcome of human and states relations, conducts of hostilities, must conform with laid-down regulations in terms of types of military wares and ammunition to be used, and stages of their utilisation, targets and non targets of attack, areas of combat, treatment of civilians, journalists and prisoners of war and refuges; and the duties of humanitarian agencies such as the Red-Cross otherwise called ‘doctor without borders'. Three, the law of neutrality, international law forbids aggression on neutral states in war. It also spells out reciprocal responsibilities for neutral states. Law forbids them to render any form of assistance whatever military or civil to any of the parties engaged in hostility. Four, mercantile laws, which relate to regulations on international trade, foreign investment and multi-lateral trade agreements by states.
Five, is the law of the sea. The sea is very vital to the world economy as it provides varied marine food and mineral resources. It serves as a means of international transportation, and it serves as strategic resource for national defence. For these reasons, nations have fought wars over marine resources. Consequently, activities of states in the sea need to be regulated in order to present inter-state disputes. Six, convention on the use of outer spaces. The law regulates the exploration and launching of objects into outer space (Ajayi, 2000).
The inherent nature of human beings is their unpredictability in terms of behavioural conduct. States, groups and international organisations, like individuals who constitute membership of these social formations, suffer from this innate problem. Therefore, for law to really serve its purposes, a competent and constituted body that has recognised authority must make such law. It must also be ultimately enforceable; any law that cannot be enforced is no law. It must also be dynamic because society in which it operates is dynamic. Law should also be consensual. International law is one of consensus rather than one of force. Even in the national society laws are only laws when one consents to it. It might be out of fear of reprisal or coercion.
]]>
Law generally serves the following purposes in any society. Law regulates conduct, maintains peace, and provides protection and means of achieving justice.
Specifically, law serves as a tool of order; as a tool order, it promotes order within the national and international society. There is no denying the fact that a comprehensive set of rules, regulations, obligations, rights, legal doctrines and decisions of national and international tribunals on legal matters does help to promote international order. Law regulates the behaviour of the citizenry. Without law, society would have been disorganised and become ungovernable (Kolawole, 1997).
A scholar have identified the functions of international law, which include minimising frictions between and among states, stabilising the behaviour of states, facilitating cooperation between and among states, protecting individuals, settling disputes and serving as a tool of public relations and propaganda (Adeniran, 1983).
International law also serves as an instrument of national policy. It contributes to a nation's means of attaining its objectives in foreign policy. It also serves as integrative force, in the world community, since no state can live in isolation, it atomised the entire states and people of the world into one whole as they are all subjects of the law without prejudice to race, colour or class (Ajayi, 2000).
The relationship between international law and municipal law is full of theoretical problems. The international legal literature on the subject records two main principal theories involved in the debate. But it is to be noted that this part does not necessarily distinguish or differentiate international law from municipal law or give one primacy over the other, but rather, justifies the existence of both laws as laws in the real sense of it. Although, some of the arguments put forward by different schools of thought to explain the relationship between the two laws will be explored for theoretical explanation and academic consumption.
The dualist or pluralist school of thought assumes that international law and municipal law are two separate legal systems, which exist independently of each other (Malanczuk, 1997, 63-71). Dualism stresses that the rules of the systems of international and municipal laws exist separately and cannot purport to have effect on, or overrule the other. This according to the school is because of the fundamentally different legal structureemployed on one hand by the state, and on the other hand as between states (Malanczuk, 1997).
The dualist position is accepted by the posivists like Triepel and Anzillot. Triepel maintains that international law must be incorporated into the municipal law, because the subject of state is the individual whereas the subject of international law is abstract entity known as the state. Since subjects are not the same, there has to be a transformation from one to the other, i.e. international law has to be transformed into the state law before it can be applied to individuals. This process is also called ‘Transformation theory'. The claim of Triepel as regards state as only subject of international law can no longer be sacrosanct due to dynamism in law. In the contemporary international law, individuals are seen as subject but with limited capacity.
The 1945 Nuremberg Trial made individuals subject of international law; there was also Angola Trial, etc. Anzilloti (1967) talks of the conditioning of the two laws. In his opinionated view, state laws are imperatival and hence it has to be obeyed, whereas international law is in the nature of promises; it is therefore necessary to transform a promise into command before it becomes applicable in the municipal law. The position also is not sacrosanct, in the sense that law is not necessarily command, people obey the law when they consent to it and often times people obey because of the possible gains that can be acquired.
The second school of thought known as Monist, has a unitary perception of the law and understands both international law and municipal law as forming part of one and the same legal order. The most radical version of the Monist approach was formulated by Kelsen, in his view, ‘the ultimate source of validity of all law', is derived from a basic rule of international law.
Kelsen theory implies that all rules of international law were supreme over municipal law, that a municipal law inconsistent with international law was automatically null and void and that rules of international law were directly applicable in the domestic spheres of state. Kelsen's view was on formalistic logical grounds. They opposed strict division of the two laws as demonstrated by the dualists and accept the unitary view of law as a whole. Kelsen utilises the philosophy of Kant as its basis.
Law is regarded as constituting an order which lays down patterns of behaviour that ought to be followed, coupled with the provision for sanctions, which are employed once an illegal act or course of conduct has occurred or been embarked upon. Since the same definition implies both within internal sphere and international sphere, a logical unity is forged. Since states own their legal relationship to the roles of international law, and since states cannot be equal before the law without a rule to that effect, it follows that international law is superior to or more basic than municipal law.
Kelsen emphasises the unity of the entire legal order upon the basis of the predominance of international law by declaring that it is the basic norm of the international legal order, which is the ultimate reason of validity of the national legal orders too (Kelsen, 1997).
Lauterpacht in his contribution uphold a strong ethical position with deep concern for human right. He sees the primary function of law as concerned with the well-being of individuals and advocates the supremacy of international law as the best method of attaining this.
Interestingly, Article 27 of the Vienna Convention on the law of treaties states that: a party may not invoke the provisions of its internal laws as justification for its failure to carry out an international agreement. However, expression on the supremacy on the international law over municipal law in international tribunals does not mean that the provisions of domestic legislation are either irrelevant or necessary. On the contrary, the role of international legal rules is vital to the working of the international legal machine.
One of the ways that is possible to understand and discover a state's legal position on a variety of topic important to international law is by examining the municipal laws. A country will express its opinion on such vital international matter at the extent of its territorial sea or the justification it claims or the conditions for the acquisition of nationality through the medium of its domestic law making. Thus, it is quite often that in the course of deciding a case before it, an international court will feel the necessity to make a study of relevant pieces of municipal legislation. The rules of municipal law can be utilised as evidences of compliance or non-compliance with international obligations (Shaw, 1997).
International law does not entirely ignore municipal law. For example, municipal law may be used as evidence of international custom or of general principles of law, which are both sources of international law. Moreover, international law leaves certain questions to be decided by the municipal law (Akhurst, 1977).
Harmonisation theory succinctly provides an answer to the true relationship of the two laws by asserting that:
The starting point in the legal order is that man lives not in one jurisdiction, but in both. International law and municipal law are concordant bodies of doctrine, autonomous but harmonious in their aim of basic human good. When faced with an actual problem, a municipal court applies the rules operative within its jurisdiction and may in fact, apply international law to the exclusion of municipal law, or vice-versa (Aguda, 1993: 32).
A treaty or other rule of international law imposes an obligation on states to enact a particular rule as part of their own municipal law. Similarly, there is a general duty for states to bring domestic law into conformity with obligation under international law either through transformation, incorporation, adoption or reception, e.g. treaties ratified in accordance with the constitution automatically become part of the municipal law of the USA. In Britain, the traditional rule is that customary international law automatically forms part of English law (Akhurst, 1977).
In a case before a municipal court, a rule of international law may be brought forward as a defence to a charge. For example, a vessel may be prosecuted for being in what the domestic terms is regarded as territorial waters, but in international law, it would be treated as part of the high seas.
Okeke (1986:6) puts it in this manner:
…as states grow in their international outlook, and as they participate in either the creation of new rules of international law or in the re-definition of the already existing ones, it must be borne in mind that the world is now advancing on the principle of interdependence and mutual cooperation. The age of holding tenaciously to the principle of absolute sovereignty is far gone. Indeed, a state by taking laws to be in conformity with international law is a legitimate exercise of the sovereignty of such a state.
Okeke's position stresses the dynamism in law and the society, when the law operates and the need for global intercourse of nation for global benefits; and such interaction must be regulated with law both at national and international levels so as to have peaceful and ordered world.
Okeke in his analysis cited a section each from the constitution of Germany and the United States of America to affirm the interconnectedness of international and municipal laws. The constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany provides:
The general rules of public international law are an integral
part of the federal law. They shall take precedence over the
laws and shall directly create rights and duties for the inhabitants
of the federal territory (Okeke, 1986).
In the same manner, the American constitution also provides:
The constitution and the laws of the United States, which shall
be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which
shall be the supreme law of the land, and the judges in every state
shall be bound thereby, and everything in the constitution or laws
of any state to the contrary notwithstanding.
In addition, the rule of the municipal law can be utilised as evidences of compliance or non-compliance with international obligations, e.g. the issue of respect of fundamental human rights. Though, in some countries the law will sometimes fail to reflect the correct rule of international law, but this does not necessarily mean that states will be breaking international law.
From the submissions above, ranging from definitions of law, characteristics and purposes to relationship and complimentary nature of municipal law and international law, it is clear that both laws possess the qualities of law and all that takes to be called laws. They serve the same purposes and perform functions of law because they are meant to regulate conduct, maintain peace, provide protection, achieve justice, etc. They are both enforceable; they have different mechanisms of enforcement and agencies. They are both dynamic in nature, they are made by competent and recognised authority, etc. As a matter of fact, both laws have been able to work towards achieving well ordered societies, which is the ultimate goal of any law. Therefore, international law and municipal laws are reallaws.
Adeniran, T. 1983 Introduction to International Relations. Ibadan, Macmillan Nigeria Ltd.
Aguda, A. (ed.) 1999 Introduction to International Law. Ibadan, Spectrum Law Publishing.
Ajayi, K. 2000 International Administration and Economic Relations in a Changing World. Ilorin, Maaba Publisher.
Akehurst, M. 1977 A Modern Approach to International Law. London, George Allen Publishing Ltd.
Anzilloti, T. 1967 International Law and State. England, Oxford Press.
Davidson, K. and M. Forsythe 1998 Business Law. USA, West Educational Publishing Limited.
Jessup, P. 1968 A Modern Law of Nations. Handen Conn, Archan Books.
Kelsen, J. 1997 International Law. Edinburgh, Rose Publishing Ltd.
Kolawole, D. 1997 Reading in Political Science. Ibadan, Dekaal Publishing Ltd.
Malanczuk, P. 1997 Akehurst's Modern Introduction to International Law. Padstow Con Wall, TJ International Ltd.
Okeke, C. 1986 Theory and Practice of International Law in Nigeria. Forth Dimension Ltd.
Oppenheim, O. 1995 International Law. London, Longman.
Shaw, N. 1997 International Law. UK, Cambridge University Press.
Related International Law Articles
It is the nature of man to live in communities. He lives in this fashion in every part of the world today, and the evidence of history and pre-history shows how long he has been doing so. But then it must be noted that where people live together conflict is bound to arise due to various conflicting interests among the people. Also, bearing in mind that everybody tries to work hard, obtains basic needs and all other things which help to make life happy and comfortable which are incidentally in short supply, since the supply is always in short in proportion to the demand, competition for them sets in. It is a race in which we all engage, and in every race or game there must be rules and regulations. Else, we are moving towards the ‘state of nature' as enunciated by Hobbes. Therefore, the existence of rules and regulations (law) becomes a sine qua non to the peaceful co-existence of people and nations all over the world.
This chapter therefore, attempts a critical examination of International and Municipal laws. The chapter is divided into three parts. Part one which is the introduction provides theoretical background for the work. In it, clarifications of some concepts that are germane to the study are done. It also looks briefly at purposes and characteristics of law. Part two compares vividly international law and municipal law looking at the debate on the relationship between the two using the contending theories. Part three, which is the concluding aspect, presents a complementary nature of international law and municipal law, thereby viewing both laws as real, irrespective of their peculiarities.
Since conceptual clarification is a form of intellectual ritual that gives clarity and validity to any discussion, it is therefore necessary to explain concepts that are germane to this study for the purpose of deeper understanding.
There have been various definitions of law by different scholars across the global intellectual communities. These definitions exist, ranging from the philosophical to the practical, Plato called law social control; William Blackstone (1977) sees law as rule, specifying what was right and what was wrong. For the purpose of this study, law is viewed as a body of rules that establish a certain level of social conduct, or duties that members of the society honour (Davidson, 1998:3).
Law simply means an arrangement that coordinates and confines people's behaviours to conform to an agreed general ways of human conduct in a given society, with a threat of sanctions against defiant behaviours. Inferred from the above definitions is the need to obey the law. This is because disobedience may attract sanctions that may result in imprisonment, fine or death, depending on the nature of offence. Law may also be defined as a body of rules or regulations governing the conduct of human beings in their social regulations.
Municipal law is the internal law of the state, binding on the citizens of the state. It is defined as the domestic law of a state regulating the conduct of individuals and legal entities within it (Aguda, 1999). It is national or internal law of a state. Shaw sees municipal law as law that governs the domestic aspects of government and deals with issues between individuals and the administrative apparatus (Shaw, 1997:105).
It is an indisputable fact that international law is a victim of definitional pluralism; this is because many scholarly definitions have been given to it by various scholars of repute from different perspectives. Some of these definitions will be explored for the purpose of this study.
Khan et al (1968) defines it as a ‘body of rules, laws, and norms, which serves to limit the sovereignty of state in the international society. Oppenheim (1995) sees it as the ‘body of customary and treaty rules which are considered legally binding by states, in their intercourse with each other.' Jessup (1968) presents it as the body of laws, which is applicable to states in their relations and to individuals in their relations to other states. In the same vein, Kolawole (1997, 278) defines international law or what he calls the ‘law of nations' as the body of rules and principles of action which are binding upon civilised states in their relations with one another. International law is the law at the international level made by the collective will of states and to lesser degree organisation and individuals (Shaw, 1997, 105). In essence, international law is a body of generally accepted principles and rules regulating or controlling the conduct of states, individuals and international organisations for the purpose of peaceful coexistence in the international plane.
The scope of international law can be categorised into six broad items, namely: one, the law of peace, which seeks the peaceful settlement of international disputes. Two, the law of war, since conflict is an inevitable outcome of human and states relations, conducts of hostilities, must conform with laid-down regulations in terms of types of military wares and ammunition to be used, and stages of their utilisation, targets and non targets of attack, areas of combat, treatment of civilians, journalists and prisoners of war and refuges; and the duties of humanitarian agencies such as the Red-Cross otherwise called ‘doctor without borders'. Three, the law of neutrality, international law forbids aggression on neutral states in war. It also spells out reciprocal responsibilities for neutral states. Law forbids them to render any form of assistance whatever military or civil to any of the parties engaged in hostility. Four, mercantile laws, which relate to regulations on international trade, foreign investment and multi-lateral trade agreements by states.
Five, is the law of the sea. The sea is very vital to the world economy as it provides varied marine food and mineral resources. It serves as a means of international transportation, and it serves as strategic resource for national defence. For these reasons, nations have fought wars over marine resources. Consequently, activities of states in the sea need to be regulated in order to present inter-state disputes. Six, convention on the use of outer spaces. The law regulates the exploration and launching of objects into outer space (Ajayi, 2000).
The inherent nature of human beings is their unpredictability in terms of behavioural conduct. States, groups and international organisations, like individuals who constitute membership of these social formations, suffer from this innate problem. Therefore, for law to really serve its purposes, a competent and constituted body that has recognised authority must make such law. It must also be ultimately enforceable; any law that cannot be enforced is no law. It must also be dynamic because society in which it operates is dynamic. Law should also be consensual. International law is one of consensus rather than one of force. Even in the national society laws are only laws when one consents to it. It might be out of fear of reprisal or coercion.
]]>
Law generally serves the following purposes in any society. Law regulates conduct, maintains peace, and provides protection and means of achieving justice.
Specifically, law serves as a tool of order; as a tool order, it promotes order within the national and international society. There is no denying the fact that a comprehensive set of rules, regulations, obligations, rights, legal doctrines and decisions of national and international tribunals on legal matters does help to promote international order. Law regulates the behaviour of the citizenry. Without law, society would have been disorganised and become ungovernable (Kolawole, 1997).
A scholar have identified the functions of international law, which include minimising frictions between and among states, stabilising the behaviour of states, facilitating cooperation between and among states, protecting individuals, settling disputes and serving as a tool of public relations and propaganda (Adeniran, 1983).
International law also serves as an instrument of national policy. It contributes to a nation's means of attaining its objectives in foreign policy. It also serves as integrative force, in the world community, since no state can live in isolation, it atomised the entire states and people of the world into one whole as they are all subjects of the law without prejudice to race, colour or class (Ajayi, 2000).
The relationship between international law and municipal law is full of theoretical problems. The international legal literature on the subject records two main principal theories involved in the debate. But it is to be noted that this part does not necessarily distinguish or differentiate international law from municipal law or give one primacy over the other, but rather, justifies the existence of both laws as laws in the real sense of it. Although, some of the arguments put forward by different schools of thought to explain the relationship between the two laws will be explored for theoretical explanation and academic consumption.
The dualist or pluralist school of thought assumes that international law and municipal law are two separate legal systems, which exist independently of each other (Malanczuk, 1997, 63-71). Dualism stresses that the rules of the systems of international and municipal laws exist separately and cannot purport to have effect on, or overrule the other. This according to the school is because of the fundamentally different legal structureemployed on one hand by the state, and on the other hand as between states (Malanczuk, 1997).
The dualist position is accepted by the posivists like Triepel and Anzillot. Triepel maintains that international law must be incorporated into the municipal law, because the subject of state is the individual whereas the subject of international law is abstract entity known as the state. Since subjects are not the same, there has to be a transformation from one to the other, i.e. international law has to be transformed into the state law before it can be applied to individuals. This process is also called ‘Transformation theory'. The claim of Triepel as regards state as only subject of international law can no longer be sacrosanct due to dynamism in law. In the contemporary international law, individuals are seen as subject but with limited capacity.
The 1945 Nuremberg Trial made individuals subject of international law; there was also Angola Trial, etc. Anzilloti (1967) talks of the conditioning of the two laws. In his opinionated view, state laws are imperatival and hence it has to be obeyed, whereas international law is in the nature of promises; it is therefore necessary to transform a promise into command before it becomes applicable in the municipal law. The position also is not sacrosanct, in the sense that law is not necessarily command, people obey the law when they consent to it and often times people obey because of the possible gains that can be acquired.
The second school of thought known as Monist, has a unitary perception of the law and understands both international law and municipal law as forming part of one and the same legal order. The most radical version of the Monist approach was formulated by Kelsen, in his view, ‘the ultimate source of validity of all law', is derived from a basic rule of international law.
Kelsen theory implies that all rules of international law were supreme over municipal law, that a municipal law inconsistent with international law was automatically null and void and that rules of international law were directly applicable in the domestic spheres of state. Kelsen's view was on formalistic logical grounds. They opposed strict division of the two laws as demonstrated by the dualists and accept the unitary view of law as a whole. Kelsen utilises the philosophy of Kant as its basis.
Law is regarded as constituting an order which lays down patterns of behaviour that ought to be followed, coupled with the provision for sanctions, which are employed once an illegal act or course of conduct has occurred or been embarked upon. Since the same definition implies both within internal sphere and international sphere, a logical unity is forged. Since states own their legal relationship to the roles of international law, and since states cannot be equal before the law without a rule to that effect, it follows that international law is superior to or more basic than municipal law.
Kelsen emphasises the unity of the entire legal order upon the basis of the predominance of international law by declaring that it is the basic norm of the international legal order, which is the ultimate reason of validity of the national legal orders too (Kelsen, 1997).
Lauterpacht in his contribution uphold a strong ethical position with deep concern for human right. He sees the primary function of law as concerned with the well-being of individuals and advocates the supremacy of international law as the best method of attaining this.
Interestingly, Article 27 of the Vienna Convention on the law of treaties states that: a party may not invoke the provisions of its internal laws as justification for its failure to carry out an international agreement. However, expression on the supremacy on the international law over municipal law in international tribunals does not mean that the provisions of domestic legislation are either irrelevant or necessary. On the contrary, the role of international legal rules is vital to the working of the international legal machine.
One of the ways that is possible to understand and discover a state's legal position on a variety of topic important to international law is by examining the municipal laws. A country will express its opinion on such vital international matter at the extent of its territorial sea or the justification it claims or the conditions for the acquisition of nationality through the medium of its domestic law making. Thus, it is quite often that in the course of deciding a case before it, an international court will feel the necessity to make a study of relevant pieces of municipal legislation. The rules of municipal law can be utilised as evidences of compliance or non-compliance with international obligations (Shaw, 1997).
International law does not entirely ignore municipal law. For example, municipal law may be used as evidence of international custom or of general principles of law, which are both sources of international law. Moreover, international law leaves certain questions to be decided by the municipal law (Akhurst, 1977).
Harmonisation theory succinctly provides an answer to the true relationship of the two laws by asserting that:
The starting point in the legal order is that man lives not in one jurisdiction, but in both. International law and municipal law are concordant bodies of doctrine, autonomous but harmonious in their aim of basic human good. When faced with an actual problem, a municipal court applies the rules operative within its jurisdiction and may in fact, apply international law to the exclusion of municipal law, or vice-versa (Aguda, 1993: 32).
A treaty or other rule of international law imposes an obligation on states to enact a particular rule as part of their own municipal law. Similarly, there is a general duty for states to bring domestic law into conformity with obligation under international law either through transformation, incorporation, adoption or reception, e.g. treaties ratified in accordance with the constitution automatically become part of the municipal law of the USA. In Britain, the traditional rule is that customary international law automatically forms part of English law (Akhurst, 1977).
In a case before a municipal court, a rule of international law may be brought forward as a defence to a charge. For example, a vessel may be prosecuted for being in what the domestic terms is regarded as territorial waters, but in international law, it would be treated as part of the high seas.
Okeke (1986:6) puts it in this manner:
…as states grow in their international outlook, and as they participate in either the creation of new rules of international law or in the re-definition of the already existing ones, it must be borne in mind that the world is now advancing on the principle of interdependence and mutual cooperation. The age of holding tenaciously to the principle of absolute sovereignty is far gone. Indeed, a state by taking laws to be in conformity with international law is a legitimate exercise of the sovereignty of such a state.
Okeke's position stresses the dynamism in law and the society, when the law operates and the need for global intercourse of nation for global benefits; and such interaction must be regulated with law both at national and international levels so as to have peaceful and ordered world.
Okeke in his analysis cited a section each from the constitution of Germany and the United States of America to affirm the interconnectedness of international and municipal laws. The constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany provides:
The general rules of public international law are an integral
part of the federal law. They shall take precedence over the
laws and shall directly create rights and duties for the inhabitants
of the federal territory (Okeke, 1986).
In the same manner, the American constitution also provides:
The constitution and the laws of the United States, which shall
be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which
shall be the supreme law of the land, and the judges in every state
shall be bound thereby, and everything in the constitution or laws
of any state to the contrary notwithstanding.
In addition, the rule of the municipal law can be utilised as evidences of compliance or non-compliance with international obligations, e.g. the issue of respect of fundamental human rights. Though, in some countries the law will sometimes fail to reflect the correct rule of international law, but this does not necessarily mean that states will be breaking international law.
From the submissions above, ranging from definitions of law, characteristics and purposes to relationship and complimentary nature of municipal law and international law, it is clear that both laws possess the qualities of law and all that takes to be called laws. They serve the same purposes and perform functions of law because they are meant to regulate conduct, maintain peace, provide protection, achieve justice, etc. They are both enforceable; they have different mechanisms of enforcement and agencies. They are both dynamic in nature, they are made by competent and recognised authority, etc. As a matter of fact, both laws have been able to work towards achieving well ordered societies, which is the ultimate goal of any law. Therefore, international law and municipal laws are reallaws.
Adeniran, T. 1983 Introduction to International Relations. Ibadan, Macmillan Nigeria Ltd.
Aguda, A. (ed.) 1999 Introduction to International Law. Ibadan, Spectrum Law Publishing.
Ajayi, K. 2000 International Administration and Economic Relations in a Changing World. Ilorin, Maaba Publisher.
Akehurst, M. 1977 A Modern Approach to International Law. London, George Allen Publishing Ltd.
Anzilloti, T. 1967 International Law and State. England, Oxford Press.
Davidson, K. and M. Forsythe 1998 Business Law. USA, West Educational Publishing Limited.
Jessup, P. 1968 A Modern Law of Nations. Handen Conn, Archan Books.
Kelsen, J. 1997 International Law. Edinburgh, Rose Publishing Ltd.
Kolawole, D. 1997 Reading in Political Science. Ibadan, Dekaal Publishing Ltd.
Malanczuk, P. 1997 Akehurst's Modern Introduction to International Law. Padstow Con Wall, TJ International Ltd.
Okeke, C. 1986 Theory and Practice of International Law in Nigeria. Forth Dimension Ltd.
Oppenheim, O. 1995 International Law. London, Longman.
Shaw, N. 1997 International Law. UK, Cambridge University Press.
The Author, Tolu Lawal, was born on April 7th, 1974 in Oka Akoko, Ondo State of Nigeria, West Africa. He holds B.sc Political Science and M.sc Political Science(Public Administration option). He is currently a doctoral student of University of Ibadan, Nigeria. He is of Political Science Department.
Related International Law Articles
New York, NY (PRWEB) August 08, 2011
In some industries, it is easy to produce quantifiable proof of a job well done, either in terms of overall sales figures, percent increases, or some similar statistic. In the practice of law, however, results are measured differently. For the legal team practicing at New York?s Spar & Bernstein firm, success is evaluated not in terms of dollars and cents but in terms of the number of clients served. Recently, the highly-publicized firm announced a new milestone?a total of 50,000 clients represented over the course of the firm?s five decade history.
Brad Bernstein, an immigration attorney and New York talk radio host, says the figure is meaningful because the firm?s goal has always been ?to make people?s lives better.? The practice was established in 1958 by Bernstein?s grandfather, Harry Spar. In the early days, Spar & Bernstein dealt strictly with United States Immigration Law, which is, according to Bernstein, the result of his grandfather wishing to ?help people be united with their families and allow them to pursue whatever dreams brought them to this country.?
Bernstein says 50,000 is a major landmark for the firm, but his vision is for Spar & Bernstein to reach even greater heights. In recent years, Bernstein has been expanding the firm?s focus?which once rested almost entirely on immigration cases?to different branches of the law. He says his goal is not for Spar & Bernstein?s immigration services to be neglected, but simply to expand the number of clients he and his colleagues are able to assist.
This expanded sphere of service includes new branches within the firm of Spar & Bernstein devoted to personal injury representation, criminal defense, family law, and tax relief. Says Bernstein, ?We don?t want to add services just to add them. We have added these services because we know people need them, and we have brought in some great attorneys in these fields to maintain the high standards of excellence our firm is known for.?
Bernstein hopes the new range of services will enable Spar & Bernstein to bring in further clients, but he is also acutely aware that immigration law is what led to the bulk of those 50,000 clients. ?Immigration law will always be something this firm prioritizes, and it will always be something that I, personally, am passionate about.?
ABOUT:
One of the nation?s premier legal firms in the field of United States Immigration Law, Spar & Bernstein was founded in 1958 and since then has served more than 50,000 clients. The firm is led by Brad Bernstein, who is nationally-known on immigration law and host of a popular call-in radio show. The firm also offers services in personal injury law and criminal defense.
For more information about Spar & Bernstein, visit http://4immigration.com.
# # #
Most people don't differentiate between civil law and criminal law, partly because the majority of news coverage in the media is dedicated to criminal law cases. Most people have heard of a civil lawsuit, but they aren't really sure how the two are different. Civil cases aren't as widely publicized because they don't ever have the same dramatic punch that often comes with a big criminal case.
It may come as a surprise to many people just how different the two types of suits are - here are some of the biggest differences between criminal and civil law cases.
The Verdict and Subsequent Ruling
This is the major reason why criminal cases are so much more publicized and advertised in the media. The defendant in a criminal case runs much more of a risk - a guilty verdict can bring with it several different forms of punishment depending upon the severity of the crime committed.
Crimes are broken down into two sub categories - first are the felonies, which are the larger offenses and which will most likely result in more severe punishments. Second are misdemeanors, which are the smaller offenses and will likely yield sentences that are not quite as harsh.
A person charged with first degree murder, which is the top of the ladder as far as felonies are concerned, could receive life in prison without parole - or even the death penalty depending upon the state in which the crime was committed. Lesser felony offenses may still yield large amounts of jail time, depending upon the nature of the crime; whether there was pre-meditation, or if the person has been involved in similar criminal activity before.
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Misdemeanor charges with convictions often result in one of or a combination of the following - fines, probation, community service and in some cases jail time. Again depending on the circumstances surrounding the crime, the punishment may be either more or less severe.
The defendants involved in a civil case will never, under any circumstances - regardless of the crime charged, be subject to the same forms of punishment as those convicted in criminal cases. In fact, regardless of the nature of the crime committed defendants convicted in civil cases will never do any time in prison. Defendants who are on the losing side of the verdict in a civil case are often responsible to reimburse the plaintiff or plaintiffs of the case in an amount determined by the judge or jury to be comparable to the loss that they may have suffered due directly as a result of the defendants actions. The actual monetary amount awarded in the verdicts of these cases is often hard to come to, especially in cases when more than just property is lost or damaged as a result of the defendant's actions.
Making the Case
In a criminal case, the defendant is innocent until proven guilty. It's is the responsibility of the side of the plaintiff to build a case that shows beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant did, in fact commit the crime in question. If the defense can inject even the smallest shadow of doubt on the plaintiffs case the verdict in the case will (or should) return not guilty. If the jury is not very close to one hundred percent certain that the defendant committed the crime in question, then there is no conviction.
The proof required to get the desired verdict in a civil case is not nearly as high as that of a criminal case. If the plaintiff can initially convince the jury that it's reasonably possible that the defendant is responsible, the burden for proving their innocence falls on the defense. If the evidence shows more than fifty percent probability that the defendant is responsible a guilty verdict can be returned and the defendant then becomes responsible for reparations.
Even if the defendant is convicted of the charges and ordered to pay, it still doesn't mean that the plaintiff will receive a financial windfall as a result of the conviction. Often if the defendant has nothing to give, then the plaintiff won't receive the judgment awarded.
Even if the charges are exactly the same, the results and subsequent penalties handed down can be drastically different in criminal cases and civil cases. Civil cases, while not nearly as dramatic to the media as criminal cases and even when a sum can't be awarded, can provide true closure for the plaintiff if the defendant is convicted.
Criminal Lawyer Fort Lauderdale provides criminal defense services to individuals charged with DUI. Criminal Attorney Fort Lauderdale also provides expertise in defending people charged with domestic violence and drug related offenses.
Related Civil Law Articles
Common Law Faq
Like my other question, I need a one sentence definition for this term. Wikipedia doesn't make it very clear what they mean. ' law that relates to the constitution, as a permanent system of political and juridical government, as distinguished from statutory and common law, which relate to matters subordinate to such constitution.
Common law is a different stream of law to equity. It developed in the middle ages where people who had an injustice which could not be sorted by the common law due to strict procedure and precedent were able to file their grievances in equity. - they are 2 different.
What are the common law contract principles? (Homework assignment) No, because there can be several reasons why they don't have the item, but they can write you a raincheck or offer a substitution. - No. - ?? How can it be on sale if the.
Okay I have a few questions: 1) What IS common law marrage? 2) How exactly does it work in the state of Virginia? 3) What if you don't want to be married by common law, or whatever? (Lost on words here!) Thanks! 3) An essential part of common law is that you are presenting.
Is common law marriage recognized in Texas? If so is it still possible to have a common law divorce if one spouse is not a u.s. citizen? Texas does recognize common law marriage (called an informal marriage), but there is no such thing as a common law divorce. If you have a common.
Is there a such thing as common law marriage, legally? Or is it just what people say when they live together. and how long do you have to live together to be considered common law? it depends on what state you live in if it exists and how long you must live together before it takes.
Hmmmm. I think you need to be more specific. Common Law relating to what? Start here, it may help. - No, YOU find a book on republic of ireland common law. - No unless you are more polite about it
Have you heard of the State v. Stewart case. IF you have or have some knowledge of the case please e-mail me. 1. Under the common law, the excuse for killing in self-defense is founded upon necessity, be it real or apparent. 2. Where self-defense is asserted, evidence of the deceased's long-term cruelty and violence towards.
]]>
who is habeus corpus and where did he go to the ACLU wants me to help them find him, can you help us with this I don't know who he is or where he went can you help us with this In common law, habeas corpus (/).
any help with the topic is much appreciated. i have no idea. thank you Common law is judge made law. Personality factors such as the individual judge can affect this. Statistics show that Australian judges are from a very narrow socio-economic background, over 90% of judges are male from an.
They have breached data protection act 1998 and you need advice. It could be a very horrific situation especially as you could have been fleeing domestic violence. Basically there is a common law, called the law of confidence which prevents.
Does that mean Australia has the same kind of statutes as in Singapore/ England.. and other common law countries? Virtually all countries that started with British common law have a lot of basic legal concepts in common, starting with the principles in the Magna.
What do the degrees mean for a murder or other crime? Like when they say 1st degree, 2nd degree, or 3rd degree? 1st degree is premeditated, 2nd degree is when you just kill someone without premeditation, 3rd degree is usually like manslaughter. - It varies by state (or province). At common law (which is.
No, the Bible, nor any other manuscript says that they were married. The Da Vinci Code is a lie, and attempts to undermine the Christian faith. Jesus came for one reason, to save mankind! - Sadly, Nobody knows.. - No, they were very close friends. Of.
the common law is a complete system of law applied in common law courts, it's rigid in nature.equity is not a complete system of law, yet it suffices the lackings of the common law, equity adjudicators judges based on what is fair and just. - In.
Hello there, I am retired and about to transfer my money to a bank in Singapore. I live partly in Europe and Thailand and have a son with my common law partner. I recently made my last will where I stated that 75 percent of my fortune should go to my son and 25 percent.
Yes - any marriage in any state is recognized in all 50 states. This is provided for in the US Constitution. Most states do not recognize common law marriages, with one exception. Common law marriages which were established in states which *do* recognize them are recognized.
The common law of practically every state recognizes slander as a 'tort' where you can sue for actual and punitive damages. Consult a lawyer. - Ofcourse.slander..but make sure it was infact slander..the boss must make a statement in the presence of third parties that.
a friend of mine was married in 1958 he was married for 8 years and had 3 children, he divorced , a year later they bought a home together but never remarried, the children grew up and left, neither one wants to leave the home and all they do is fight ,.
I lived with a man for 14 years. When we broke up I thought are relationship was common law. Which entitles me to marriage benifits. But California did away with that. Does your state have common law? My state does (if it's grandfathered - pre 1997) Here's.
More Common law questions please visit : LawFreeFAQ.com
Like my other question, I need a one sentence definition for this term. Wikipedia doesn't make it very clear what they mean. ' law that relates to the constitution, as a permanent system of political and juridical government, as distinguished from statutory and common law, which relate to matters subordinate to such constitution.
Common law is a different stream of law to equity. It developed in the middle ages where people who had an injustice which could not be sorted by the common law due to strict procedure and precedent were able to file their grievances in equity. - they are 2 different.
What are the common law contract principles? (Homework assignment) No, because there can be several reasons why they don't have the item, but they can write you a raincheck or offer a substitution. - No. - ?? How can it be on sale if the.
Okay I have a few questions: 1) What IS common law marrage? 2) How exactly does it work in the state of Virginia? 3) What if you don't want to be married by common law, or whatever? (Lost on words here!) Thanks! 3) An essential part of common law is that you are presenting.
Is common law marriage recognized in Texas? If so is it still possible to have a common law divorce if one spouse is not a u.s. citizen? Texas does recognize common law marriage (called an informal marriage), but there is no such thing as a common law divorce. If you have a common.
Is there a such thing as common law marriage, legally? Or is it just what people say when they live together. and how long do you have to live together to be considered common law? it depends on what state you live in if it exists and how long you must live together before it takes.
Hmmmm. I think you need to be more specific. Common Law relating to what? Start here, it may help. - No, YOU find a book on republic of ireland common law. - No unless you are more polite about it
Have you heard of the State v. Stewart case. IF you have or have some knowledge of the case please e-mail me. 1. Under the common law, the excuse for killing in self-defense is founded upon necessity, be it real or apparent. 2. Where self-defense is asserted, evidence of the deceased's long-term cruelty and violence towards.
]]>
who is habeus corpus and where did he go to the ACLU wants me to help them find him, can you help us with this I don't know who he is or where he went can you help us with this In common law, habeas corpus (/).
any help with the topic is much appreciated. i have no idea. thank you Common law is judge made law. Personality factors such as the individual judge can affect this. Statistics show that Australian judges are from a very narrow socio-economic background, over 90% of judges are male from an.
They have breached data protection act 1998 and you need advice. It could be a very horrific situation especially as you could have been fleeing domestic violence. Basically there is a common law, called the law of confidence which prevents.
Does that mean Australia has the same kind of statutes as in Singapore/ England.. and other common law countries? Virtually all countries that started with British common law have a lot of basic legal concepts in common, starting with the principles in the Magna.
What do the degrees mean for a murder or other crime? Like when they say 1st degree, 2nd degree, or 3rd degree? 1st degree is premeditated, 2nd degree is when you just kill someone without premeditation, 3rd degree is usually like manslaughter. - It varies by state (or province). At common law (which is.
No, the Bible, nor any other manuscript says that they were married. The Da Vinci Code is a lie, and attempts to undermine the Christian faith. Jesus came for one reason, to save mankind! - Sadly, Nobody knows.. - No, they were very close friends. Of.
the common law is a complete system of law applied in common law courts, it's rigid in nature.equity is not a complete system of law, yet it suffices the lackings of the common law, equity adjudicators judges based on what is fair and just. - In.
Hello there, I am retired and about to transfer my money to a bank in Singapore. I live partly in Europe and Thailand and have a son with my common law partner. I recently made my last will where I stated that 75 percent of my fortune should go to my son and 25 percent.
Yes - any marriage in any state is recognized in all 50 states. This is provided for in the US Constitution. Most states do not recognize common law marriages, with one exception. Common law marriages which were established in states which *do* recognize them are recognized.
The common law of practically every state recognizes slander as a 'tort' where you can sue for actual and punitive damages. Consult a lawyer. - Ofcourse.slander..but make sure it was infact slander..the boss must make a statement in the presence of third parties that.
a friend of mine was married in 1958 he was married for 8 years and had 3 children, he divorced , a year later they bought a home together but never remarried, the children grew up and left, neither one wants to leave the home and all they do is fight ,.
I lived with a man for 14 years. When we broke up I thought are relationship was common law. Which entitles me to marriage benifits. But California did away with that. Does your state have common law? My state does (if it's grandfathered - pre 1997) Here's.
More Common law questions please visit : LawFreeFAQ.com
Orange, CA (PRWEB) March 18, 2008
The U.S. legal system and the law has to become accessible and affordable for all Americans. LegalArrow.com, which was just launched, helps convert this unanimous proposition into practice.
Attorney Marin Cionca created LegalArrow.com - an online legal document service, to help in the effort of making the legal system more accessible and affordable for all people.
"I am a great believer in the Internet, and the great opportunity it offers for low cost communication and publishing. I felt that the legal system did not take full advantage of the present information technology progress, to make itself more accessible to all Americans. That's why I created LegalArrow.com, which provides free legal information, and low cost legal document services to the public," said Cionca.
Every parent needs a will and a living will, yet research shows that a large majority of parents do not have any. Often, the reasons are the scarcity of easily accessible legal information, and the high cost associated with hiring an attorney to draft the needed legal document. LegalArrow.com offers an alternative: free legal information to help understand the main elements of, for example, a living will, and the low cost option of having a legal document professional prepare that living will.
"Before I became an attorney I was a college instructor for over six years. I feel that I have to continue to give back as an attorney, by 'teaching' the law now. LegalArrow.com gives me the platform to do so," said Cionca.
Currently, LegalArrow.com offers several legal documents and procedures, from wills and trusts, to incorporation and limited liability company formation services. More legal documents and procedures are in the works and will be added online shortly.
The process of ordering legal documents at LegalArrow.com is simple: you answer a set of document-specific questions which are written in plain English, and are supported by the step-by-step general legal information available to guide you. Next, the legal document professionals at LegalArrow.com prepare and mail the documents to you, or they can even file them for you.
About LegalArrow.com:
While LegalArrow.com or its owner Legal Arrow, Inc. is not a law firm, and does not offer legal advice, it helps people have access to free general legal information, and address their common legal matters or concerns in an affordable way.
Contact:
Marin Cionca, Founder/CEO
Legal Arrow, Inc.
(714) 938 - 3817
LegalArrow.com
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